The Kwanyani Language

2.1. Consonants

Except where IPA in square brackets is given, the orthography matches IPA. There are 24 consonant phonemes:

*For the phonemic status of f, see Allophony.

The obstruents (stops and fricatives) also have prenasalized variants, some of which have silghtly different pronunciation than their plain counterparts:

Apart from this phonetic prenasalization there is also a phonological process (Nasal Coda Contraction) that changes obstruents into their prenasalized counterparts as well as the other consonants (m n ny r rh l ly y w) in less regular ways.

2.2. Vowels

Kwanyani has six vowels:

There is a height based vowel harmony system in which the low a e o vowels alternate with the high â i u vowels. The circumflex of â may be dropped due to technical limitations, laziness or both. It’s unambiguous most of the time anyway due to vowel harmony.

2.3. Tones

Kwanyani has a register tone system with two heighs: high (H) and low (L). Each word has a tone melody, which may be one of L, H, LH, HL, LHL or HLH. The word tones map onto the indiviual vowels of the word, which may be more or fewer in number (see Tone Assignment).

In the orthography low tone is unmarked and high tone is marked with the acute accent á é í ó ú or with the tilde ã. In typographically fancy contexts, ấ may be subsituted for ã.

Some examples of words with different tone melodies:

2.4. Syllables

A standard Kwanyani syllable is CV, that is: one mandatory consonant (possibly prenasalized) and one mandatory vowel. In word-initial syllables the consonant onset is optional. Valid words are formed like (C)V, (C)V.CV, (C)V.CV.CV, etc. Some example words of increasing length:

2.5. Allophony

Initial vowels are pronunced with a preceding non-phonemic glottal stop [ʔ] to avoid vowel hiatus across word boundaries.

The distinction between plain (k g h [k g x̞]) and labialized (kw gw hw [kʷ gʷ x̞ʷ]) consonants are neutralized before rounded vowels.

The contrast between plain velar k g h and the labialized velar kw gw hw is neutralized before the round vowels o and u. There, there stops are written as k g, but pronounced as kw gw. The fricatives h and hw also lose their velarization and become f, which only appears in this environment. In summary:

• Before unrounded vowels: Only k g h and kw gw hw appear, but not f

• Before rounded vowels: Only k g f [kʷ gʷ ɸ] appear, but not h or hw

2.6. Phonetics

The cluster ns is pronounced with an affricative, like [nts] rather than *[ns].

Word initially h and hw are glottal fricatives [h], [ʍ]. Between vowels they are velars with very light friction [x̞], [x̞ʷ]. After nasals they are velars with more friction [ŋx], [ŋxʷ].

The r is an alveolar trill [r].

The rh has a broad range of possible pronunciations. It can be considered to be on a trajectory of change from a voiced fricative trill [r̝], via a voiced flap with a fricative release [ɾʑ], towards a plain voiced fricative [ʑ]. Use the pronunciation that suits you best.

The ly [ʎ] is rare and may be pronounced the same as y [j] without much loss.

2.7. Stress

Kwanyani words have primary stress on the penultimate syllable: ankwenda [ʔa.ˈᵑkʷe.ⁿda], nâgwâ [ˈnə.gʷə]. Even syllables from the end carry secondary stress: ankwekwendamo [ʔa.ˌᵑkʷe.kʷe.ˈⁿda.mo]

Clitics become part of the word they attach to, so when they attach to the end of a word they shift the stress: rimâ [ˈri.mə] and -yu + becomes rimâyu [ri.ˈmə.ju].

2.8. Tone Assignment

TODO Write.

3.1. Reduplication

There are two forms of reduplication: full and partial. Both are productive, meaning that they may apply to any applicable word. Some words are also reduplicated in their basic lexical form, here called fossilized reduplications, so a reduplicated word does not always come from a productive process.

3.2. Vowel Harmony

The six vowels of Kwanyani are partitioned by height into a set of high vowels â i u with the [+high] feature, and a set of low vowels a e o with the [−high] feature. The vowels form three high–low pairs: â–a, i–e, u–o.

Within words only three under-specified vowels are distinguished, which are written with the shorthand a i u.

The word as a whole carries a value for the [high] feature, which selects if a i u appear as â i u (when [+high]) or a e o (when [−high]) respectively. The root of the word determines the height of all the vowels in the word. All the vowels in affixes and clitics joined to the root inherit their height from the root.

In the dictionary roots are given with full vowels, eg. bunya to drink, and affixes and clitics are given with under-specified vowels, eg an- active voice and -mu I/me.

As another example, when the words akweto and nâgwâ are joined with the clitic =yo they become akwetoyo and nâgwâyu respectively.

3.3. Consonant Contraction

Allthough syllables in Kwanyani don’t have codas, but some morphemes can be described as having historical codas that never appear on the surface, but undergoes contraction with another consonant. The underspecified consonants written with shorthand letters n and h are the only consonants that may occur in a historical coda.

When a morpheme is joined to another morpheme, the resulting forbidden n-C or h-C consonant cluster contracts to a single valid consonant onset. For example, an- combined with engwa, bunyu, lewe, and wesa become anengwa, âmbunyu, andewe, and angwesa respectively.

4.1. Nouns

Kwanyani nouns inflect optionally for number.

4.2. Personal Pronouns

Kwanyani has personal pronouns with different forms depending on:

• Person: first exclusive, first inclusive, second, third

• Number: singular, dual (only for first person exclusive), plural

• Animacy: animate, inanimate (for third person singular)

The non-plural personal pronouns also have unstressed clitic forms that fuse to the previous word phonologically, but are otherwise identical in function.

TODO Explain the dual form in terms of minimal/augmented.

4.3. Demonstratives

The demonstratives pronouns make a three-way distinction–proximal, medial, distal–but the demonstratives adjectives don’t differentiate medial and distal. The pronuns are formed by prefixing i- to the adjectives.

The medial ikâ is only applicable when a specific listener can be identified. In direct speech, it’s relative to the real listener. In quoted speech in writing, it’s relative to the listener in the narrative.

The demonstative adjetive is placed before and after the noun it modified (see The Noun Phrase).

4.4. Verbs and Adjectives

Verbs inflect for voice, aspect and mood. There is no morphological marking for tense, but tense may optionally be signalled by adverbs. The order of the affixes is:

Voice–Stem(Aspect)–Mood

5.1. The Attributive Particle

The attributive particle n= (ATTR, GEN, REL) has many functions. Generally speaking, it’s used to “glue” an attributive modifier to its noun. (It’s similar to Mandarin 的 de, but with reverse word order.) In this grammar it’s glossed differently depending what type of modifier it links to the noun: adjective, genitive noun or relative clause. The functions and glosses are:

• With adjectives n= is a particle that shows attribution, in contrast to predication (gloss: ATTR)

• With nouns n= is a genitive preposition, like English “of” (gloss: GEN)

• With relative clauses n= is a relativizer, like English “that” (gloss: REL).

Before (pre-)nasals, r and rh the attributive clitic disappears (see Nasal Coda Contraction). This introduces a bit of ambiguity.

There is an archaic independent form of the attributive particle, nâ, which is very rarely used in the colloquial language, but appears in some fixed phrases.

The possessor comes after the adjectives. In addition to the forms that are free words, the singular possessors also have the bound clitic forms described in Personal Pronouns. These clitics appear in the same position in the clause as the free words would, but attach to the previous word.

5.2. Nominal Apposition

TODO Write.

6.1. Main Clauses

6.2. Oblique Arguments and Adverbs

Oblique arguments come after the verb and object in the clause.

TODO Write

6.3. Subordinate Clauses

6.4. Predicative Possession

Predicative possession is when posession is expressed in the form of a clause (and not a noun modifier). Enlish uses the transitive verb “to have”, but Kwanyani uses the intransitive verb ehwa to exist together with the conjunction lâ and. The possessor noun phrase is the subject of ehwa and the possessed noun phrase comes after the lâ.

6.5. Null Subject

TODO: Write.

7.1. Focus

Focus in Kwanyani is marked in-place with the clitic =ya, unlike in Enlish where it is marked with intonation and possibly also word order. There are three types of focus: argument, predicate and sentence focus.

7.2. Topic

TODO: Write.

8.1. An Unorganized Collection of Example of Sentences

8.2. Conlang Syntax Test Cases

Source: https://cofl.github.io/conlang/resources/mirror/conlang-syntax-test-cases.html

8.3. The Donkey Beater Story

Copyright:

English version © 2012 George A. Corley, licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (same as this document).

Description:

This story was written as a homework challenge and was featured in episode 35 of the Conlangery podcast.

There was once a man who beat his donkey every day. One day, a second man, who was a neighbor, came to the donkey-beater and asked, “Why do you beat your donkey?” The donkey-beater said, “Beating is all the donkey knows, I must beat him until he learns how to behave.”

The donkey-beater then went into his home and discovered his dinner wasn’t ready, so he beat his wife. His neighbor heard the screams of the donkey-beater’s wife and came to the door. “You should not beat your wife so much,” said the neighbor. “I beat her until she learns to have dinner ready on time.”

Some time later, the neighbor saw the donkey-beater beating his son in a field. This time, he did not say anything, but seized the donkey beater and began to beat him with a heavy cudgel. When the donkey-beater asked why his neighbor was beating him, his neighbor replied, “I will beat you until you learn not to beat others.”

9.1. Phrases

Odele-odele!

Hello!

Insindi kwa mirâ?

What is your name?

Insinu kwa ___.

My name is ___.

Bowonde kwa mirâ?

How old are you?

Bowono kwa mala ___.

I’m ___ years old.

9.2. Verbs

durative = activity or accomplishment depending on if done towards a goal

bákwa, bébakwa, vi, sem.

bark

bámó, bébámó, vt, act.

hug, embrace

benka, bebenka, vt, ach.

put

bunyú, bibúnyú, vt, dur., no av

drink (up)

dájé, dédájé, vi, sem.

jump, skip

docha, dedocha, vt, dur.

boil

dikâ, didika, vt, dur.

write

ehwa, (ehwehwa), vi, stat.

exist

engwa, ekengwa, vt, dur.

wash

gónyé, gégónyé, vt, dur., no av

eat

gwámbe, gwégwambe, vt, act.

play (like children)

helya, hehelya, vi, act.

shine

hwerha, hwehwerha, vt, stat.

know (people)

jínkwi, jíjinkwi, vi, dur.

go (not by foot), ride

kengwe, kekengwe, vt, sem.

bump into (hard), hit

kimbu, kikimbu, vi, stat.

stand

kindi, kikindi, vt, dur.

do, make

konsa, kekonsa, vt, dur.

build

kwénda, kwékwenda, vt, act.

see

konja, kikunjâ, vt, dur.

drive

liwi, liliwi, vt, dur.

cultivate, till

lewe, lelewe, vi, sem.

happen, occur

lumbâ, lilumbâ, vt, act.

taste

makwe, memakwe, vt, ach.

fetch

mema, memema, vi, act.

grow, become larger, develop, (of plants) be present, see also rânu

mindu, mimindu, vt, dur.

tie, knot

nanja, nenanja, vt, stat.

want

nano, nenano, vt, dur.

sing

ninhwâ, nininhwâ, vi, dur.

run

nundu, ninundu, vt, dur.

sow

nuru, ninuru, vm, act.

rain (no subject)

pongwe, pepongwe, vt, dur.

water

rânu, rirânu, vi, dur.

cultivate, grow

renya, rerenya, rini, ririni, act.

attract, invite, beckon

rhu, rhirhu, vt, ach.

give

sahwe, sesahwe, vt, dur.

dig

sându, sisându, vt, stat.

know (not people), PFV: find out

senja, sesenja, vi, dur.

walk

sinchâ, sisinchâ, vi, sem.

sneeze

socha, sesocha, vi, dur.

climb

tinyâ, titinyâ, vt, act.

vi: emit a scent/smell; vt: sense a smell;

temba, tetemba, vt, ach.

drop

teme, teteme, vt, act.

pour

tonkwa, tetonkwa, vt, act.

shake

tumu, titumu, vt, dur.

cover with a coat of some material, paint, pave

wamba, wewamba, vt, dur.

bake

wânyu, wâwânyu, vt, stat.

sit

wesa, wewesa, vt, acc.

say

yundâ, yuyundâ, vt, acc.

cook

9.3. Adjectives

antsa a

red

chiki a

small

chongo a

whole, entire

danda a

few

ekakwidi a

solitary, isolated, lonely, lone, sole

fokare a

rural, simple, contry-style, idyllic, carefree, lighthearted

fumufumu a

fluffy

haga a

sparse, translucent, hollow, light, thin, dilute, loose

írhi a

cold

jibu a

new, fresh

kambame a

tasty, delicious

tala a

half

tirhâ a

dense, thick, (of a color) bright, saturated, (of food and drink) rich, tight

unukirhu a

white

uwâ a

warm

wawa a

big

wele a

many

9.4. Nouns

amba n

milk

akweto n

friend

âfumbâ n

island, land, ground, earth; âfumbâ ntala peninsula; âfumbâ nekakwidi isolated island; chikâfumbâ islet; Cha chikâfumbâ usehwa dafo-dafo. On the island there are some trees growing.

baba n

father

baha n

gourd, calabash, bowl, débaha cup, mug

bâsu n

(leavened) bread, loaf

bibilyutíkí n

library

bisi n

bus

bolobo n

sweater

boloko n

block, writing pad

bowo n

age

búku n

book

bulú n

work, labor; job; workplace

bunâ n

coffee

dafo n

tree

darhá n

money, cash

desa n

underside, cha desa n= under

deté n

tea

elyamamo n

TBD

galásé n

ice, glass, mirror

ganse n

chair

hámbaga n

hamburger

hwâlâ n

day

hwingu n

duck

igwi n

person

ikuru n

house

kalapaya n

TBD

kapekwa n

hole (in the ground)

kâbu n

basket, kâbu mbâsu proofing basket

kengo n

overside, cha kengo n= over

kinyi n

garden, allotment, yard, park

kúkumbâ n

cucumber

kumârâ n

sweet potato

kutí n

cat, chíkutí kitten

kwânyã n

language, tongue

kwikwâ n

water

labánka n

bank (institution)

lekólé n

school

lenya n

soup

lunyâ n

seed

mala n

year

mama n

mother

manga n

mango

mbintâ n

stone

mesa n

parent

mfumbu n

leaf

mótoka n

car

mutu n

road or path within settlement or urban area

nâgwâ n

dog, chínãgwâ puppy

nãrâ n

rabbit, chínãrâ bunny

nârhânu n

fruit

nempoye n

clearing, glade

nísãlí n

cabin, small house (with beds and kitchen)

Nsámbe n

God

nsíkú n

bird

nyanga n

child

pame n

hand, five

panka n

sea, ocean

pidâmâ n

teacher

pinishâ n

sandwich

pírhâ n

pizza

pumfurítí n

french fries

rhâfumâ n

TBD

rimâ n

twig, branch

ruti n

flat bread

sáshe n

bag, small bag, handbag, (not backpack)

shilâ n

grass

sirumâ n

sun

tândi n

home

tekwa n

streetlight, watchfire, fire for light; chetekwa flashlight, lamp, torch; watekwa floodlight, signal fire, beacon; watekwa renya lighthouse

tuwâchâli n

TBD

weló n

bicycle

yá n

squirrel

9.5. Adverbs

angwe adv

today

banse adv

now

chitândi adv

(at) home

ijâ adv

already

meme adv

again

pâyâ adv

out

sânki adv

here

sânkâ adv

there (by you)

sânku adv

there (over there)

9.6. Prepositions

cha prep

(Locative), at, in

lâ prep

(Instrumental and Comitative), with, see also lâ (conjunction)

ko prep

(Dative), to, for

untu prep

among

we prep

(Ablative), from

9.7. Conjunctions

ihwi conj

because, for the reason that

l= conj

see lâ

lâ conj

and (may appear as l= before vowel). see also lâ preposition

n= relativizer

that, which, who; see relative clauses

nâ relativizer

old form of n=, rarely used

h= complementizer

that; see subordinate clauses

sâ complementizer

old form of h=, rarely used

9.8. Onomatopoeia

chipi-chipi interj

tweet, the sound made by a bird

bâwu-bâwu interj

bow-wow, the sound made by a dog

kwa-kwa interj

quack, the sound made by a duck

nyâwu interj

meow, the sound made by a cat

9.9. Numerals

eka num

one

rawe num

two

jiku num

three

9.10. Time

Lândi np

Monday

Madi np

Tuesday

Mekwâdi np

Wednesday

Jâdi np

Thursday

Wandâdi np

Friday

Samedi np

Saturday

Dimanshâ np

Sunday

Janero np

January

Fewero np

February

Maso np

March

Âbili np

April

Mayo np

May

Junyu np

June

Julyu np

July

Agoto np

August

Setembo np

September

Utubu np

October

Novembo np

November

Desembo np

December

9.11. Verb Prefixes

an- v

Transitive, active voice

ki- (before vowel: kiy-) v

Transitive, passive voice

mu- (before vowel: muw-) v

Transitive, middle voice

uh- v

Non-topicalized subject

9.12. Noun Prefixes

chi- n

diminutive

10.1. Proto-Kwanyani

Syllables: CV(F) (where F = {})

10.2. Old Kwanyani

Syllables: C(j)V(F) (where F = {ɴ, ʔ, h, r, l})

ɴ, ʔ, h only in codas. ɴ = debuccalized nasal, assimilates to POA of following C, becomes ŋ if no C.

• Loss of coda consonants: C(j)VF → C(j)VT

  • Prenasalization with fortification

    • ɴs → ɴts Merger of s and ts after nasal

    • ɴr → rː → r

    • ɴl → ɴd

    • ɴj → ɲ

    • ɴw → ŋgʷ

    • ɴS → ⁿS, where S={p, t, k, kʷ, b, d, gʷ, ts}

  • Fricativization and devoicing

    • hp, ht, hk, hkʷ → ɸ, s, x, xʷ

    • hb, hd, hg, hgʷ → p, t, k, kʷ

  • Monophthongization

    • aj, aːj → e eː

    • aw, aːw → o oː

  • Tonogenesis

    • CVʔ → CV́ High tone

    • CVr, CVl → CV̀ Low tone

    • Unmarked tone is mid tone

Phonemes lost: ɴ, ʔ, ts, all coda consonants

Phonemes gained: prenasalized stops, mid vowels, tone

10.3. Middle Kwanyani

Syllables: C(j)VT, where T = {H, Ø, L}

• Height vowel harony

  • a, i, u → ɐ, ɪ, ʊ → ə, e, o Centralization of short vowels

  • aː, iː, uː → a i u Shortening of long vowels

  • Feature reanalysis: a, e o are [+high] and ə, i, u are [−high]

  • [high] spreading

    • The [high] feature of the dominant syllable of a root spreads to the other syllables.

    • The first long vowel, or the first short vowel if no long vowels, is the dominant syllable.

    • Affixes and clitics lose their [high] feature (become [high] neutral) and assimilate to the word they are glommed on to.

Lost: vowel length distinction

Gained: new vowel qualities, vowel harmony

10.4. Modern Kwanyani

Syllables: CV Tones: high, low

ʔ is inserted between vowels to avoid vowel hiatus and is not phonemic.

Height/ATR vowel harmony.

• FIXME Missing links

  • prenasalized fricatives

  • ⁿts

  • palatalizations (except for ny)

12.1. Alternate Orthography

Palatalized consonants are written like the plain ones but with added carons and [j] is written j. Labialized consonants are written like the plain ones but with hooks. The labiovelar approximant [w] may be written with a italic-style “v”. The central vowel â is written with a schwa ǝ.

12.2. Table of WALS Features

The names and values are identical to those on WALS Online. Comments and links to relevant places in this grammar are provided in [square brackets]. Word Order features 143A-G and 144A-Y were placed in the Word Order table after feature 97A together with the rest of the features in the same area.